From niche to norm: Europe’s EV charging infrastructure in 2025

The European fleet of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) fleet includes 9.3m cars and vans, alongside 5.2m plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), according to data from March 2025. Combined, BEVs and PHEVs, accounted for one in four cars sold in Europe in 2024.[1] It’s clear that EVs have moved beyond the early adopters and firmly entered the mass market.

Based on current projections for EV adoption, we estimate that by 2030, our selected countries (see figure 1) will have a combined fleet of 50m EVs on the road. RaboResearch estimates that meeting charging demand in these countries will require the installation of 3m new charging points – bringing the total to 3.9m charging points by 2030. In the Netherlands alone, an estimated 300,000 new charging points will be added over the next five years.

[1] BloombergNEF.

With the growing adoption of EVs, the type of dwelling – whether apartments or houses – plays an important role in assessing the potential increase in public charging demand for each new EV. According to Eurostat, 45% of the EU population lives in an apartment building.[2] Installing charging points in such buildings is more challenging than in single-family homes. For instance, such installations could require a higher capacity grid connection, with costs likely to be shared among all residents, including those who do not own an EV – who may oppose to such an investment. With limited access to private charging points, new EV owners will increasingly rely on public charging infrastructure.

These challenges have already been observed in China, a global frontrunner in the EV transition, where the prevalence of apartment buildings means that only 20% of EV owners have access to a home charger.[3]

Homeownership patterns thus influence public charging demand. While 70% of EU residents are tenants, national differences are significant – only 49% of Germany’s population lives in owner-occupied homes, compared to 70% in the Netherlands. This matters: in the Netherlands, rental properties accounted for an estimated 15% of private charging installations in 2024,[4] well below their 30% share of the housing stock. The lower rate reflects limited incentives for landlords, who must weigh the cost-benefit of investing in infrastructure for short-term tenants.

[2] The UK is an exception, with only 15% of its population living in apartments. Yet homeownership rates in the UK are similar to the EU average, with 45% of the population renting.

[3] BloombergNEF.

[4] According to market research company Multiscope.

In Europe, most charging points use alternating current (AC) (see figure 2). However, direct current (DC) chargers deliver the fastest charging speeds. This is because AC chargers rely on a converter inside the vehicle to transform AC into DC for battery charging. The capacity of this onboard converter limits the charging speed. In contrast, DC charging stations use a more powerful converter on site to convert the grid’s AC into DC, bypassing the car’s smaller converter and directly charging the battery, resulting in significantly faster charging.

Fast charging is important because it enhances convenience for EV drivers. DC chargers address two key barriers often cited by would-be EV buyers in surveys:[5] range anxiety and the lack of charging infrastructure that offers refueling times comparable to traditional gas stations. As a result, achieving refueling time parity with internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles has become a focus point for attracting new EV consumers.

However, fast charging is not a universal solution. It requires higher capital investment than AC charging, and depending on the location, charging speed may not be the primary concern, as will be discussed in the following chapter.

The Netherlands, Germany, and France have the biggest charging networks in Europe (see figure 2). Germany and France also have a higher proportion of fast charging points (50kW and above) compared to other countries. These markets have densely populated areas with a high concentration of EVs, creating strong demand for fast charging infrastructure.

[5] Exploring consumer sentiment on electric-vehicle charging. McKinsey & Company 2025

By 2030, the ratio of AC to DC chargers is expected to remain relatively stable (see figure 3). DC chargers require a higher capital investment than AC chargers, which is reflected in pricing: In the Netherlands DC charging can cost up to EUR 0.70/kWh, while AC charging typically starts at EUR 0.25/kWh. Although DC offers greater convenience, consumer price sensitivity is likely to sustain strong demand for AC charging points.

In the EV charging ecosystem, two distinct but interdependent business models have emerged: the charge point operator (CPO), and the mobility service provider (MSP). These models represent different segments of the value chain and are critical to the scalability and accessibility of EV infrastructure across markets.

The CPO business model

CPOs are primarily responsible for the deployment, ownership, and technical operation of EV charging infrastructure. This includes the installation of charging stations, securing grid connections, managing hardware and software systems, and ensuring ongoing maintenance and uptime. CPOs typically invest in physical assets and bear the capital expenditure associated with infrastructure development. Their revenue model is largely based on charging fees, which may be collected directly from end users or indirectly through partnerships with MSPs. In some cases, CPOs could also engage in energy services for the grid – such as dynamic load balancing or vehicle-to-grid (V2G) integration – to optimize grid interaction and reduce operational costs.

CPOs can operate at destination-based enterprises like cafés, supermarkets, and hotels, but also at en-route stations similar to fossil fuel gas stations. The nature of the location directly influences the type of charging infrastructure deployed.

At destination sites, where customers typically stay longer, charging is offered as a complementary service. For example, in US convenience stores, McKinsey estimated that EV owners are 45% more likely to make in-store purchases than ICE vehicle owners, and they spend about 25% more on food, boosting revenues. These locations tend to favor investments in lower-capacity AC chargers, as speed is less critical for their clients. In contrast, en-route CPOs prioritize DC fast chargers to minimize dwell time.

For en-route CPOs, a key metric of operational success is the amount of electricity delivered to consumers per charger. In Europe, this metric has been trending upward for large networks, with Tesla’s supercharger network leading in utilization per charger.

The MSP business model

In contrast to CPOs, the MSP business model relies on aggregating access to multiple CPO networks and offering this access to customers through digital platforms – such as mobile applications – that enable EV drivers to locate, access, and pay for charging services. Their core value proposition is to simplify the user experience and ensure seamless interoperability across diverse charging networks. MSPs expand their network coverage by signing contracts with various CPOs. They typically generate revenue through service fees, subscription models, or markups on charging sessions. Additionally, MSPs may monetize user data or offer value-added services to fleet operators and corporate clients.

Many MSPs are also EV original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) (see figure 5). These companies aim to deliver the best possible consumer experience for their EV drivers by offering an extensive network of accessible charging points. In 2024, six of the top ten MSPs by coverage were OEMs, led by Kia, whose network covered more than 80% of public charging points across Europe. Utility MAINGAU Energie and oil and gas companies, like Shell Recharge, also rank highly in terms of coverage, leveraging synergies with their existing consumer base and refueling stations in prime locations. Additionally, companies such as TravelCard and Plugsurfing focus mainly on charging services but also offer extras like vehicle maintenance to leverage their consumer base.

CPOs and MSPs interact through roaming agreements and standardized communication protocols. These allow MSPs to provide access to a broad network of chargers without owning the physical infrastructure. However, this separation is not absolute. Increasingly, CPOs are now launching their own MSP platforms, while some MSPs are beginning to invest in physical infrastructure themselves.

In the EU

Two crucial regulations have driven – and will continue to support – the growth of public charging points across the EU: the Renewable Energy Directive III (RED III), and the Alternative Fuel Infrastructure Regulation (AFIR).

Red III article 25

Under article 25 of the RED III, member states are required to establish a marketplace where CPOs can sell credits earned by supplying renewable electricity to EVs. One way of certifying the renewable electricity is by using the average grid mix, although member states may adopt other certification approaches. Fossil fuel suppliers can buy these credits to offset the emissions associated with the fossil fuels they sell. Typically, they acquire the credits through brokers or traders, who purchase them from CPOs and resell them to fossil fuel suppliers.

Participating in this marketplace offers CPOs an additional source of revenues, helping them achieve faster returns on investment. As a result, private investment in public charging infrastructure becomes more attractive, encouraging wider infrastructure rollout across the EU.

Implementation of the directive varies across member states. The Netherlands, Austria, Germany, Belgium, and France have already implemented article 25. Depending on the country, the value of these credits can range from EUR 0.03 to EUR 0.10 per kWh.

AFIR

AFIR is a component of the EU’s Fit for 55 initiative, which aims to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels. The European Commission proposed the AFIR on July 14, 2021, replacing the 2014 Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Directive (AFID).

The AFIR introduces legally binding national and EU-wide targets for the deployment of infrastructure supporting alternative fuels, such as electricity, hydrogen, and liquefied methane, for road vehicles – including passenger cars, vans, trucks, and buses, but not two- and three-wheeled vehicles – vessels, and aircraft.

Article 3 specifically outlines targets for recharging infrastructure dedicated to light-duty EVs:

• Member states must ensure a minimum of 1.3kW of charging capacity per BEV and 0.8kW per PHEV on the market. These targets apply until BEVs reach 15% of the total light-duty fleet.

• The TEN-T[6] regulation mandates that by December 31, 2025, each recharging station offers a combined power output of at least 400kW, including at least one recharging point with an individual power output of at least 150kW.

In accordance with AFIR, the EU has deployed a funding instrument to ensure the rollout of public charging and alternative fuel infrastructure across Europe: the Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Facility (AFIF).

AFIF

AFIF is an EU funding program for public charging and alternative fuel infrastructure. Between 2021 and 2025, AFIF has allocated EUR 2.3bn, with EUR 578m still unallocated as of February 2025. The majority of funding has gone to EV charging infrastructure (62%), and hydrogen refueling (23%), with the remainder allocated to aviation and shipping infrastructure. The remaining funds are likely going to be directed toward high-power charging connections, particularly to support the development of truck charging infrastructure.

In the UK

The UK currently does not have a national funding program to support public charging stations for passenger vehicles. However, under the Plan for Change, the government provides GBP 25m to local municipalities to install chargers in areas where residents lack access to home charging. Meanwhile, the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation scheme aims to introduce a RED III-style system in the UK, although no such scheme is in place yet.

In Norway

Norway does not yet have schemes supporting public charging infrastructure for passenger vehicles, however it does have a strong EV subsidy program that indirectly drives demand for EV charging points. As a member of the European Economic Area, Norway is required to implement many EU laws to maintain access to the single market. As a result, Norway is expected to adopt RED III once the implementation of RED II is complete.

[6] Trans-European Transport Network is an EU policy initiative aimed at developing a comprehensive network of roads, railways, inland waterways, ports, airports, and other transport infrastructure across Europe.

The successful rollout of charging infrastructure depends on a strong grid capable of delivering electricity to EVs. Charging demand typically peaks in the morning and evening, which can strain the grid’s ability to balance local supply and demand. This may lead to grid instability and potentially to short-term local black-outs. To prevent grid instability, infrastructure operators often extend connection times, allowing them to improve the grid.

Long grid connection queues across Europe can slow down infrastructure development. Over the past few years this issue has become more acute, the average timeline for connecting an EV charging station project has increased from six months to two years.

Addressing these issues requires innovation not only from CPOs and MSPs, but also from grid operators – both distribution system operators (DSOs) and transmission system operators (TSOs) – depending on what grid the CPO is connected to.

Co-location of battery storage

A work-around for long grid connection queues is to use on-site batteries, allowing operations to start with a lower-capacity grid connection or even a variable transport contract. Charging stations’ utilization typically fluctuates during the day, with midday often seeing lower demand. On-site batteries could help “shave” peak usage times, enabling companies to operate with lower-capacity grid connections during off-peak hours and offering faster charging throughout the day by drawing electricity from the batteries.

This approach aligns well with flexible transport contracts offered by grid operators.

Flexible electricity transport contracts

Another innovative solution to grid constraints comes from grid operators: flexible electricity transport contracts. Just as individual households have electricity consumption patterns, society as a whole also displays a pattern of energy consumption, typically using more electricity in the early hours of the day and evening, with a trough around midday. This dip suggests that during off-peak hours CPOs could contract more grid capacity.

To incentivize electricity consumption during off-peak hours, grid operators in some countries can offer CPOs flexible grid connection contracts. These contracts allocate the capacity throughout the day – less capacity during peak hours (morning and evening) and more during midday – which reduces congestion. In the Netherlands, for example, trials have been conducted with time-dependent transport rights (TDTR) contracts offered by the TSO. Charging stations connected directly to the high-voltage power grid could benefit from such arrangements. At the distribution level, DSOs offer similar solutions on the lower voltage grid, such as fully variable transport rights (known in Dutch as “volledig variabel transportrecht,” or VVT) and time block-bound transport rights (“tijdsblok gebonden transportrecht,” or TGT). For a full overview of alternative transmission rights in the Dutch market, see our recent article (in Dutch).

MSPs also play an important role by enabling dynamic pricing based on CPO capacity. This gives EV drivers a financial incentive to charge during cheaper, off-peak periods. Additionally, MSPs can notify users when fast charging is available – typically when CPOs have their maximum capacity allocated.

Vehicle to grid, how EVs can help the grid

As we have explored in a previous article, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology could enable EVs to play a role in increasing flexibility within the electricity system by providing congestion management services, for example. That added flexibility supports better integration of variable renewable energy sources and contributes to further emissions reductions. V2G could also help address mismatches between non-dispatchable renewable generation and electricity demand, and mitigate grid challenges that hinder the energy transition.

With significant growth on the horizon, demand for charging infrastructure in Europe is poised to accelerate over the next five years, driven by the rapid expansion of the EV fleet. Forecasts indicate a steep rise in public charging needs, particularly in countries with high urban density and a large share of residents living in apartment buildings.

Despite strong tailwinds, several challenges remain. Expanding the fast-speed public charging network is essential to meet the needs of long-distance drivers and reduce charging times. Equally important is improving geographic coverage and interoperability of existing networks across MSPs to ensure seamless access for users. Grid congestion and long grid connection queues must also be proactively managed to avoid bottlenecks and ensure reliable charging for new EV owners.

As infrastructure scales to match demand, Europe stands at the cusp of a mobility revolution – one that depends on investment, policy alignment, and technological innovation.